Diabetes & Metabolism Journal

Original Articles

Lifestyle and Behavioral Interventions
The Preventive Effect of Physical Activity on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Korean Longitudinal Prospective Cohort Study: Ji Hyae Lim, Min Hyoung Kim, Hye-Ji Han, Su Ji Yang, Myung-Gwan Kim, Hyun Jung Lee, You Jung Han, Jin Hoon Chung, Dong Wook Kwak, Seongwoo Yang, Moon Young Kim, Hyun Mee Ryu; Received May 30, 2024 Accepted December 3, 2024 Published online April 23, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2024.0280 [Epub ahead of print]

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Background
To assess longitudinally physical activity patterns and intensity from pre-pregnancy to postpartum and evaluate the association between timing and type of physical activity and the development of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).
Methods
The Korean Pregnancy Outcome Study (KPOS) is a prospective cohort study conducted from 2013 to 2017. Our study included 3,457 participants with singleton pregnancies in KPOS, classified according to the pregnancy outcome: GDM (n=231) and normal (n=3,226). Physical activity data were collected at five time points using the short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire: before pregnancy, at 12, 24, and 36 gestational weeks (GW), and 6–8 weeks postpartum. Pre-pregnancy physical activity was collected through recall at 12 GW.
Results
Maternal age, pre-pregnancy body mass index, educational status, smoking, mini dietary assessment index, first-degree family history of diabetes, hypertension, parity, pre-existing GDM, and previous macrosomia showed significant differences between the GDM group and the normal group (P<0.05 for all). Pre-pregnancy muscle-strengthening activity was significantly associated with a lower risk of GDM (adjusted odds ratio, 0.46; 95% confidence interval, 0.25 to 0.85).
Conclusion
These findings suggest that physical activity, such as muscle-strengthening activities before pregnancy, could be a preventive strategy to reduce GDM risk. Although the study does not provide evidence that physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum reduces GDM risk, it offers significant insights into the importance of maintaining a healthy level of physical activity from pre-pregnancy to prevent GDM.

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Pre-Conception Physical Activity and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Findings from the BORN 2020 Study
Antigoni Tranidou, Antonios Siargkas, Ioannis Tsakiridis, Emmanuela Magriplis, Aikaterini Apostolopoulou, Georgia Koutsouki, Michail Chourdakis, Themistoklis Dagklis
Nutrients.2025; 17(11): 1832. CrossRef

Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Pregravid Weight Gain Is Associated with an Increased Risk of Gestational Diabetes: Sunmie Kim, Kyungdo Han, Su-Yeon Choi, Min Joo Kim, Sun Young Yang, Seung Ho Choi, Jeong Yoon Yim, Jin Ju Kim, Min-Jeong Kim; Received August 19, 2024 Accepted November 15, 2024 Published online March 26, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2024.0491 [Epub ahead of print]

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Background
Studies have reported a significant association between pregravid weight gain and the subsequent development of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in various populations. The current study aims to investigate this relationship using data from the Korean National Health Insurance Service database.
Methods
We conducted a retrospective nationwide population-based cohort study, involving 159,798 women who gave birth between 2015 and 2017 and had undergone two national health screening examinations: 1 year (index checkup) and 3 years before (baseline checkup) their respective estimated conception date. Participants were categorized into five groups based on the extent of weight change between the two examinations: more than 10%, 5% to 10%, –5% to 5% (reference group), –10% to –5%, and more than –10%. The study assessed the association between pregravid weight change and GDM risk.
Results
Among the 146,363 women analyzed, 11,012 (7.52%) were diagnosed with GDM. Multiple regression analysis revealed that women who gained 5% to 10% of their weight had a 12% increased risk of GDM (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.12; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.06 to 1.17), while those who gained ≥10% had a 34% higher risk (aOR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.26 to 1.43). Notably, pregravid weight gain was particularly associated with GDM risk in non-obese or non-metabolic syndrome groups at index checkup.
Conclusion
Pregravid weight gain showed a dose-dependent association with a higher risk of GDM. This association was more pronounced in non-obese individuals emphasizing the importance of minimizing pregravid weight gain for GDM prevention, even in non-obese women.

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Advancing Early Prediction of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus with Circular RNA Biomarkers
Joon Ho Moon, Sung Hee Choi
Diabetes & Metabolism Journal.2025; 49(3): 403. CrossRef

Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Validating Multicenter Cohort Circular RNA Model for Early Screening and Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Shuo Ma, Yaya Chen, Zhexi Gu, Jiwei Wang, Fengfeng Zhao, Yuming Yao, Gulinaizhaer Abudushalamu, Shijie Cai, Xiaobo Fan, Miao Miao, Xun Gao, Chen Zhang, Guoqiu Wu; Diabetes Metab J. 2025;49(3):462-474. Published online February 21, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2024.0205

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Background
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a metabolic disorder posing significant risks to maternal and infant health, with a lack of effective early screening markers. Therefore, identifying early screening biomarkers for GDM with higher sensitivity and specificity is urgently needed.
Methods
High-throughput sequencing was employed to screen for key circular RNAs (circRNAs), which were then evaluated using reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between clinical characteristics, circRNA expression, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. The diagnostic accuracy of circRNAs for early and mid-pregnancy GDM was assessed using receiver operating characteristic curves. Pearson correlation analysis was utilized to explore the relationship between circRNA levels and oral glucose tolerance test results. A predictive model for early GDM was established using logistic regression.
Results
Significant alterations in circRNA expression profiles were detected in GDM patients, with hsa_circ_0031560 and hsa_ circ_0000793 notably upregulated during the first and second trimesters. These circRNAs were associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and effectively differentiated GDM patients, with second trimester cohorts achieving an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.836. In first trimester cohorts, these circRNAs identified potential GDM patients with AUCs of 0.832 and 0.765, respectively. The early GDM prediction model achieved an AUC of 0.904, validated in two independent cohorts.
Conclusion
Hsa_circ_0031560, hsa_circ_0000793, and the developed model serve as biomarkers for early prediction or midterm diagnosis of GDM, offering clinical tools for early GDM screening.

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Advancing Early Prediction of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus with Circular RNA Biomarkers
Joon Ho Moon, Sung Hee Choi
Diabetes & Metabolism Journal.2025; 49(3): 403. CrossRef

Genetics
Identification and Potential Clinical Utility of Common Genetic Variants in Gestational Diabetes among Chinese Pregnant Women: Claudia Ha-ting Tam, Ying Wang, Chi Chiu Wang, Lai Yuk Yuen, Cadmon King-poo Lim, Junhong Leng, Ling Wu, Alex Chi-wai Ng, Yong Hou, Kit Ying Tsoi, Hui Wang, Risa Ozaki, Albert Martin Li, Qingqing Wang, Juliana Chung-ngor Chan, Yan Chou Ye, Wing Hung Tam, Xilin Yang, Ronald Ching-wan Ma; Diabetes Metab J. 2025;49(1):128-143. Published online September 20, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2024.0139

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Background
The genetic basis for hyperglycaemia in pregnancy remain unclear. This study aimed to uncover the genetic determinants of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and investigate their applications.
Methods
We performed a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for GDM in Chinese women (464 cases and 1,217 controls), followed by de novo replications in an independent Chinese cohort (564 cases and 572 controls) and in silico replication in European (12,332 cases and 131,109 controls) and multi-ethnic populations (5,485 cases and 347,856 controls). A polygenic risk score (PRS) was derived based on the identified variants.
Results
Using the genome-wide scan and candidate gene approaches, we identified four susceptibility loci for GDM. These included three previously reported loci for GDM and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) at MTNR1B (rs7945617, odds ratio [OR], 1.64; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.38 to 1.96), CDKAL1 (rs7754840, OR, 1.33; 95% CI, 1.13 to 1.58), and INS-IGF2-KCNQ1 (rs2237897, OR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.23 to 1.79), as well as a novel genome-wide significant locus near TBR1-SLC4A10 (rs117781972, OR, 2.05; 95% CI, 1.61 to 2.62; P_meta=7.6×10^-9), which has not been previously reported in GWAS for T2DM or glycaemic traits. Moreover, we found that women with a high PRS (top quintile) had over threefold (95% CI, 2.30 to 4.09; P_meta=3.1×10^-14) and 71% (95% CI, 1.08 to 2.71; P=0.0220) higher risk for GDM and abnormal glucose tolerance post-pregnancy, respectively, compared to other individuals.
Conclusion
Our results indicate that the genetic architecture of glucose metabolism exhibits both similarities and differences between the pregnant and non-pregnant states. Integrating genetic information can facilitate identification of pregnant women at a higher risk of developing GDM or later diabetes.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

GWAS in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Research Advances
Dikun Zhou, Z. Shi, A.H. Hashash, Z.H. Khan
BIO Web of Conferences.2025; 174: 01018. CrossRef
Advancing Early Prediction of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus with Circular RNA Biomarkers
Joon Ho Moon, Sung Hee Choi
Diabetes & Metabolism Journal.2025; 49(3): 403. CrossRef
Hexokinase Domain Containing 1 (HKDC1) Gene Variants and Their Association With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Mini-Review
Sekar Kanthimathi, Polina Popova, Viswanathan Mohan, Wesley Hannah, Ranjit Mohan Anjana, Venkatesan Radha
Journal of Diabetology.2024; 15(4): 354. CrossRef

Review

Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Its Implications across the Life Span: Brandy Wicklow, Ravi Retnakaran; Diabetes Metab J. 2023;47(3):333-344. Published online February 8, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2022.0348

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Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) has historically been perceived as a medical complication of pregnancy that also serves as a harbinger of maternal risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the future. In recent decades, a growing body of evidence has detailed additional lifelong implications that extend beyond T2DM, including an elevated risk of ultimately developing cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, the risk factors that mediate this lifetime cardiovascular risk are evident not only after delivery but are present even before the pregnancy in which GDM is first diagnosed. The concept thus emerging from these data is that the diagnosis of GDM enables the identification of women who are already on an enhanced track of cardiometabolic risk that starts early in life. Studies of the offspring of pregnancies complicated by diabetes now suggest that the earliest underpinnings of this cardiometabolic risk profile may be determined in utero and may first manifest clinically in childhood. Accordingly, from this perspective, GDM is now seen as a chronic metabolic disorder that holds implications across the life span of both mother and child.

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Original Articles

Basic Research
Long Non-Coding RNA TUG1 Attenuates Insulin Resistance in Mice with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus via Regulation of the MicroRNA-328-3p/SREBP-2/ERK Axis: Xuwen Tang, Qingxin Qin, Wenjing Xu, Xuezhen Zhang; Diabetes Metab J. 2023;47(2):267-286. Published online January 19, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0216

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Background
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been illustrated to contribute to the development of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). In the present study, we aimed to elucidate how lncRNA taurine upregulated gene 1 (TUG1) influences insulin resistance (IR) in a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced mouse model of GDM.
Methods
We initially developed a mouse model of HFD-induced GDM, from which islet tissues were collected for RNA and protein extraction. Interactions among lncRNA TUG1/microRNA (miR)-328-3p/sterol regulatory element binding protein 2 (SREBP-2) were assessed by dual-luciferase reporter assay. Fasting blood glucose (FBG), fasting insulin (FINS), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), HOMA pancreatic β-cell function (HOMA-β), insulin sensitivity index for oral glucose tolerance tests (ISOGTT) and insulinogenic index (IGI) levels in mouse serum were measured through conducting gain- and loss-of-function experiments.
Results
Abundant expression of miR-328 and deficient expression of lncRNA TUG1 and SREBP-2 were characterized in the islet tissues of mice with HFD-induced GDM. LncRNA TUG1 competitively bound to miR-328-3p, which specifically targeted SREBP-2. Either depletion of miR-328-3p or restoration of lncRNA TUG1 and SREBP-2 reduced the FBG, FINS, HOMA-β, and HOMA-IR levels while increasing ISOGTT and IGI levels, promoting the expression of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway-related genes, and inhibiting apoptosis of islet cells in GDM mice. Upregulation miR-328-3p reversed the alleviative effects of SREBP-2 and lncRNA TUG1 on IR.
Conclusion
Our study provides evidence that the lncRNA TUG1 may prevent IR following GDM through competitively binding to miR-328-3p and promoting the SREBP-2-mediated ERK signaling pathway inactivation.

Citations

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Research Progress of Risk Factors Associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Zi-Jun Lin, Lian-Ping He, Cui-Ping Li
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Expression and Regulatory Ability of Long Non-Coding RNADLX6 Antisense RNA 1 in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
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Chemerin alleviates the placental oxidative stress and improves fetal overgrowth of gestational diabetes mellitus mice induced by high fat diet
Xuan Zhou, Yi Jiang, Zizhuo Wang, Lijie Wei, Huiting Zhang, Chenyun Fang, Shenglan Zhu, Yuanyuan Du, Rui Su, Weikun Li, Zhenzhen He, Liangnan Zhang, Weidong Tan, Mengzhou He, Jun Yu, Shaoshuai Wang, Wencheng Ding, Ling Feng
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Effect of Tinospora cordifolia on gestational diabetes mellitus and its complications
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Ritu Rani, Avinash Kumar Sharma, Havagiray R Chitme
Clinical Medicine Insights: Endocrinology and Diabetes.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
The role of ncRNA regulatory mechanisms in diseases—case on gestational diabetes
Dong Gao, Liping Ren, Yu-Duo Hao, Nalini Schaduangrat, Xiao-Wei Liu, Shi-Shi Yuan, Yu-He Yang, Yan Wang, Watshara Shoombuatong, Hui Ding
Briefings in Bioinformatics.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
lncRNA TUG1 as Potential Novel Biomarker for Prognosis of Cardiovascular Diseases
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Others
Influence of Maternal Diabetes on the Risk of Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Offspring in the Prenatal and Postnatal Periods: Verónica Perea, Xavier Urquizu, Maite Valverde, Marina Macias, Anna Carmona, Esther Esteve, Gemma Escribano, Nuria Pons, Oriol Giménez, Teresa Gironés, Andreu Simó-Servat, Andrea Domenech, Núria Alonso-Carril, Carme Quirós, Antonio J. Amor, Eva López, Maria José Barahona; Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(6):912-922. Published online April 29, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0340

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Background
This study aimed to evaluate the influence of maternal diabetes in the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring in the prenatal and postnatal periods.
Methods
This cohort study included singleton gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) pregnancies >22 weeks’ gestation with live newborns between 1991 and 2008. The control group was randomly selected and matched (1:2) for maternal age, weeks of gestation and birth year. Cox regression models estimated the effect of GDM on the risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and maternal type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Moreover, interaction between maternal T2DM and GDM-ADHD relationship was evaluated.
Results
Children (n=3,123) were included (1,073 GDM; 2,050 control group). The median follow-up was 18.2 years (interquartile range, 14.2 to 22.3) (n=323 with ADHD, n=36 with ASD, and n=275 from women who developed T2DM). GDM exposure was associated with ADHD (hazard ratio [HR]_crude, 1.67; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.33 to 2.07) (HR_adjusted, 1.64; 95% CI, 1.31 to 2.05). This association remained significant regardless of the treatment (diet or insulin) and diagnosis after 26 weeks of gestation. Children of mothers who developed T2DM presented higher rates of ADHD (14.2 vs. 10%, P=0.029). However, no interaction was found when T2DM was included in the GDM and ADHD models (P>0.05). GDM was not associated with an increased risk of ASD (HR_adjusted, 1.46; 95% CI, 0.74 to 2.84).
Conclusion
Prenatal exposure to GDM increases the risk of ADHD in offspring, regardless of GDM treatment complexity. However, postnatal exposure to maternal T2DM was not related to the development of ADHD.

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Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Higher Muscle Mass Protects Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus from Progression to Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Yujin Shin, Joon Ho Moon, Tae Jung Oh, Chang Ho Ahn, Jae Hoon Moon, Sung Hee Choi, Hak Chul Jang; Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(6):890-900. Published online April 28, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0334

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Background
We evaluated whether postpartum muscle mass affects the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in Korean women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).
Methods
A total of 305 women with GDM (mean age, 34.9 years) was prospectively evaluated for incident prediabetes and T2DM from 2 months after delivery and annually thereafter. Appendicular skeletal muscle mass (ASM) was assessed with bioelectrical impedance analysis at the initial postpartum visit, and ASM, either divided by body mass index (BMI) or squared height, and the absolute ASM were used as muscle mass indices. The risk of incident prediabetes and T2DM was assessed according to tertiles of these indices using a logistic regression model.
Results
After a mean follow-up duration of 3.3 years, the highest ASM/BMI tertile group had a 61% lower risk of incident prediabetes and T2DM compared to the lowest tertile group, and this remained significant after we adjusted for covariates (adjusted odds ratio, 0.37; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.15 to 0.92; P=0.032). Equivalent findings were observed in normal weight women (BMI <23 kg/m²), but this association was not significant for overweight women (BMI ≥23 kg/m²). Absolute ASM or ASM/height² was not associated with the risk of postpartum T2DM.
Conclusion
A higher muscle mass, as defined by the ASM/BMI index, was associated with a lower risk of postpartum prediabetes and T2DM in Korean women with GDM.

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Review

Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Diagnostic Approaches and Maternal-Offspring Complications: Joon Ho Moon, Hak Chul Jang; Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(1):3-14. Published online January 27, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0335

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Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is the most common complication during pregnancy and is defined as any degree of glucose intolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. GDM is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and long-term offspring and maternal complications. For GDM screening and diagnosis, a two-step approach (1-hour 50 g glucose challenge test followed by 3-hour 100 g oral glucose tolerance test) has been widely used. After the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome study implemented a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test in all pregnant women, a one-step approach was recommended as an option for the diagnosis of GDM after 2010. The one-step approach has more than doubled the incidence of GDM, but its clinical benefit in reducing adverse pregnancy outcomes remains controversial. Long-term complications of mothers with GDM include type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease, and complications of their offspring include childhood obesity and glucose intolerance. The diagnostic criteria of GDM should properly classify women at risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes and long-term complications. The present review summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of the one-step and two-step approaches for the diagnosis of GDM based on recent randomized controlled trials and observational studies. We also describe the long-term maternal and offspring complications of GDM.

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Study on the regulation of trophoblast activity by abnormally expressed hsa_circ_0024838/miR-543/HIF1A in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus
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Characterizing the Dynamic Expression of C1q/TNF-α-Related Protein 6 (CTRP6) during Pregnancy in Humans and Mice with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
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Influence of mHealth-Based Lifestyle Interventions on Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression of Women With Gestational Diabetes: A Meta-Analysis
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Association of VDR gene variant rs2228570-FokI with gestational diabetes mellitus susceptibility in Arab women
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Placental Expression of Glucose and Zinc Transporters in Women with Gestational Diabetes
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Development and validation of gestational diabetes mellitus health literacy scale
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Efectele placentare ale rezistenţei la insulină în sarcinile complicate cu diabet zaharat gestaţional
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Second‐trimester triglyceride‐glucose index to predict adverse outcomes in women with gestational diabetes mellitus: A retrospective multicenter cohort study
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Therapeutic effect of Momordica charantia on cardiomyopathy in a diabetic maternal rat model
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Longitudinal integrative cell-free DNA analysis in gestational diabetes mellitus
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Quantitative Analysis of Myocardial Work in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Using Noninvasive Left Ventricular Pressure‐Strain Loop Measurement
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Are Maternal Dietary Patterns During Pregnancy Associated with the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus? A Systematic Review of Observational Studies
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Usefulness of Glycated Albumin Levels in Predicting the Maternal or Neonatal Complications of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus during Late Pregnancy in South Korea: A Retrospective Study
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The Predictive Power of the Mother’s Neck Circumference in the Early Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
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The Efficacy and Acceptability of Flash Glucose Monitoring in Pregnant Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review
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Prediction of Possible Adverse Effects of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus on Maternal and Fetal Glomeruli by Urine and Amniotic Fluid Podocyte Degradation Products
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LncRNAs Involved in Antioxidant Response Regulation as Biomarkers of Gestational Diabetes: A Study on H19, MALAT1 and MEG3
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Decreased telomerase activity and shortened telomere length in infants whose mothers have gestational diabetes mellitus and increased severity of telomere shortening in male infants
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U-shaped Association Between Folic Acid Supplementation and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Women
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Vitamin D Supplementation for the Outcomes of Patients with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Neonates: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review
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Effects of early standardized management on the growth trajectory of offspring with gestational diabetes mellitus at 0–5 years old: a preliminary longitudinal study
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Analysis on Related Risk Factors for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) in Subsequent Pregnancies in Multiparous Women with No History of GDM
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Physiological Mechanisms Inherent to Diabetes Involved in the Development of Dementia: Alzheimer’s Disease
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Original Articles

Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Postprandial Free Fatty Acids at Mid-Pregnancy Increase the Risk of Large-for-Gestational-Age Newborns in Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: So-Yeon Kim, Young Shin Song, Soo-Kyung Kim, Yong-Wook Cho, Kyung-Soo Kim; Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(1):140-148. Published online August 9, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0023

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Background
To investigate the association between free fatty acid (FFA) level at mid-pregnancy and large-for-gestational-age (LGA) newborns in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).
Methods
We enrolled 710 pregnant women diagnosed with GDM from February 2009 to October 2016. GDM was diagnosed by a ‘two-step’ approach with Carpenter and Coustan criteria. We measured plasma lipid profiles including fasting and 2-hour postprandial FFA (2h-FFA) levels at mid-pregnancy. LGA was defined if birthweights of newborns were above the 90th percentile for their gestational age.
Results
Mean age of pregnant women in this study was 33.1 years. Mean pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) was 22.4 kg/m². The prevalence of LGA was 8.3% (n=59). Levels of 2h-FFA were higher in women who delivered LGA newborns than in those who delivered non-LGA newborns (416.7 μEq/L vs. 352.5 μEq/L, P=0.006). However, fasting FFA was not significantly different between the two groups. The prevalence of delivering LGA newborns was increased with increasing tertile of 2h-FFA (T1, 4.3%; T2, 9.8%; T3, 10.7%; P for trend <0.05). After adjustment for maternal age, pre-pregnancy BMI, and fasting plasma glucose, the highest tertile of 2h-FFA was 2.38 times (95% confidence interval, 1.11 to 5.13) more likely to have LGA newborns than the lowest tertile. However, there was no significant difference between groups according to fasting FFA tertiles.
Conclusion
In women with GDM, a high 2h-FFA level (but not fasting FFA) at mid-pregnancy is associated with an increasing risk of delivering LGA newborns.

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Longitudinal Trajectory of Free Fatty Acids in Pregnancy According to First-Trimester Maternal Metabolic Status and the Presence of Gestational Diabetes
Otilia Perichart-Perera, Isabel González-Ludlow, Omar Piña-Ramírez, Maricruz Tolentino-Dolores, Guadalupe Estrada-Gutierrez, Sandra B. Parra-Hernández, Maribel Sánchez-Martínez, Omar Granados-Portillo, Ameyalli M. Rodríguez-Cano
Metabolites.2025; 15(5): 320. CrossRef
Application and effectiveness study of tripartite linkage nursing in prediabetes type 2 diabetes: A retrospective study
Jiao Chen, Juan Wang, Zhongwen Wang, Mei Huang, Meixiang Luo, Yanyu Cai
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Advances in free fatty acid profiles in gestational diabetes mellitus
Haoyi Du, Danyang Li, Laura Monjowa Molive, Na Wu
Journal of Translational Medicine.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Association between serum free fatty acids and gestational diabetes mellitus
Danyang Li, Haoyi Du, Na Wu
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Modulation of gut microbiota and lipid metabolism in rats fed high-fat diets by Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids
Aijun Tong, Weihao Wu, Zhengxin Chen, Jiahui Wen, Ruibo Jia, Bin Liu, Hui Cao, Chao Zhao
Current Research in Food Science.2023; 6: 100427. CrossRef
Fetal Abdominal Obesity Detected at 24 to 28 Weeks of Gestation Persists until Delivery Despite Management of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (Diabetes Metab J 2021;45:547-57)
Wonjin Kim, Soo Kyung Park, Yoo Lee Kim
Diabetes & Metabolism Journal.2021; 45(6): 970. CrossRef

Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Fetal Abdominal Obesity Detected At 24 to 28 Weeks of Gestation Persists Until Delivery Despite Management of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Wonjin Kim, Soo Kyung Park, Yoo Lee Kim; Diabetes Metab J. 2021;45(4):547-557. Published online March 5, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2020.0078

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Background
Fetal abdominal obesity (FAO) has been reported to be affected at gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) diagnosis at 24 to 28 weeks of gestation in older and/or obese women. This study investigated whether the management of GDM improves FAO in GDM subjects near term.
Methods
Medical records of 7,099 singleton pregnant women delivering at CHA Gangnam Medical Center were reviewed retrospectively. GDM was diagnosed by 100-g oral glucose tolerance test after 50-g glucose challenge test based on Carpenter–Coustan criteria. GDM subjects were divided into four study groups according to maternal age and obesity. FAO was defined as ≥90th percentile of fetal abdominal overgrowth ratios (FAORs) of the ultrasonographically estimated gestational age (GA) of abdominal circumference per actual GA by the last menstruation period, biparietal diameter, or femur length, respectively.
Results
As compared with normal glucose tolerance (NGT) subjects near term, FAORs and odds ratio for FAO were significantly higher in old and/or obese women with GDM but not in young and nonobese women with GDM. For fetuses of GDM subjects with FAO at the time of GDM diagnosis, the odds ratio for exhibiting FAO near term and being large for GA at birth were 7.87 (95% confidence interval [CI], 4.38 to 14.15) and 10.96 (95% CI, 5.58 to 20.53) compared with fetuses of NGT subjects without FAO at GDM diagnosis.
Conclusion
Despite treatment, FAO detected at the time of GDM diagnosis persisted until delivery. Early diagnosis and treatment might be necessary to prevent near term FAO in high-risk older and/or obese women.

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Early-life exposure to gestational diabetes mellitus predisposes offspring to pediatric nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
Qian-Ren Zhang, Yan Dong, Jian-Gao Fan
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Gestational diabetes mellitus management according to ultrasound fetal growth versus strict glycemic treatment in singleton pregnancies: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of clinical trials
Ana M. Fernández‐Alonso, Angélica Monterrosa‐Blanco, Álvaro Monterrosa‐Castro, Faustino R. Pérez‐López
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Nisha P. Shetty, Jayashree Shetty, Veeraj Hegde, Sneha Dattatray Dharne, Mamtha Kv
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The effects of gestational diabetes mellitus on fetal growth: is it different for low-risk and medium–high-risk pregnant women?
Jie Wang, Xin Cheng, Zhen-Hua Li, Yi-Cheng Mao, Xin-Qiang Wang, Kang-Di Zhang, Wen-Jie Yu, Ying-Qing Li, Jia-wen Zhao, Mao-Lin Chen, Guo-peng Gao, Cheng-Yang Hu, Xiu-Jun Zhang
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Fetal abdominal obesity and the ensuing adverse perinatal outcomes in older obese pregnant women with or without obesity and with normal glucose tolerance
Wonjin Kim, Soo Kyung Park, Yoo Lee Kim
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Gestational diabetes mellitus and adverse pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis
Wenrui Ye, Cong Luo, Jing Huang, Chenglong Li, Zhixiong Liu, Fangkun Liu
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Fetal abdominal overgrowth is already present at 20–24 gestational weeks prior to diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus
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Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Maternal Hyperglycemia during Pregnancy Increases Adiposity of Offspring: Hye Rim Chung, Joon Ho Moon, Jung Sub Lim, Young Ah Lee, Choong Ho Shin, Joon-Seok Hong, Soo Heon Kwak, Sung Hee Choi, Hak Chul Jang; Diabetes Metab J. 2021;45(5):730-738. Published online February 22, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2020.0154

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Background
The effect of intrauterine hyperglycemia on fat mass and regional fat proportion of the offspring of mothers with gestational diabetes mellitus (OGDM) remains to be determined.
Methods
The body composition of OGDM (n=25) and offspring of normoglycemic mothers (n=49) was compared using dualenergy X-ray absorptiometry at age 5 years. The relationship between maternal glucose concentration during a 100 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and regional fat mass or proportion was analyzed after adjusting for maternal prepregnancy body mass index (BMI).
Results
BMI was comparable between OGDM and control (median, 16.0 kg/m² vs. 16.1 kg/m² ). Total, truncal, and leg fat mass were higher in OGDM compared with control (3,769 g vs. 2,245 g, P=0.004; 1,289 g vs. 870 g, P=0.017; 1,638 g vs. 961 g, P=0.002, respectively), whereas total lean mass was lower in OGDM (15,688 g vs. 16,941 g, P=0.001). Among OGDM, total and truncal fat mass were correlated with fasting and 3-hour glucose concentrations of maternal 100 g OGTT during pregnancy (total fat mass, r=0.49, P=0.018 [fasting], r=0.473, P=0.023 [3-hour]; truncal fat mass, r=0.571, P=0.004 [fasting], r=0.558, P=0.006 [3-hour]), but there was no correlation between OGDM leg fat mass and maternal OGTT during pregnancy. Regional fat indices were not correlated with concurrent maternal 75 g OGTT values.
Conclusion
Intrauterine hyperglycemia is associated with increased fat mass, especially truncal fat, in OGDM aged 5 years.

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Increased Pro-Inflammatory T Cells, Senescent T Cells, and Immune-Check Point Molecules in the Placentas of Patients With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Yea Eun Kang, Hyon-Seung Yi, Min-Kyung Yeo, Jung Tae Kim, Danbit Park, Yewon Jung, Ok Soon Kim, Seong Eun Lee, Ji Min Kim, Kyong Hye Joung, Ju Hee Lee, Bon Jeong Ku, Mina Lee, Hyun Jin Kim
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Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
A Vegetable Dietary Pattern Is Associated with Lowered Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Women: Qiong Chen, Weiwei Wu, Hailan Yang, Ping Zhang, Yongliang Feng, Keke Wang, Ying Wang, Suping Wang, Yawei Zhang; Diabetes Metab J. 2020;44(6):887-896. Published online September 11, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2019.0138

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Background
Identification of modifiable dietary factors, which are involved in the development of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), could inform strategies to prevent GDM.
Methods
We examined the dietary patterns in a Chinese population and evaluated their relationship with GDM risk using a case-control study including 1,464 cases and 8,092 control subjects. Propensity score matching was used to reduce the imbalance of covariates between cases and controls. Dietary patterns were identified using factor analysis while their associations with GDM risk were evaluated using logistic regression models.
Results
A “vegetable” dietary pattern was characterized as the consumption of green leafy vegetables (Chinese little greens and bean seedling), other vegetables (cabbages, carrots, tomatoes, eggplants, potatoes, mushrooms, peppers, bamboo shoots, agarics, and garlic), and bean products (soybean milk, tofu, kidney beans, and cowpea). For every quartile increase in the vegetables factor score during 1 year prior to conception, the first trimester, and the second trimester of pregnancy, the GDM risk lowered by 6% (odds ratio [OR], 0.94; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.89 to 0.99), 7% (OR, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.88 to 0.99), and 9% (OR, 0.91; 95% CI, 0.86 to 0.96).
Conclusion
In conclusion, our study suggests that the vegetable dietary pattern is associated with lower GDM risk; however, the interpretation of the result should with caution due to the limitations in our study, and additional studies are necessary to explore the underlying mechanism of this relationship.

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Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
A Comparison of Predictive Performances between Old versus New Criteria in a Risk-Based Screening Strategy for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Subeen Hong, Seung Mi Lee, Soo Heon Kwak, Byoung Jae Kim, Ja Nam Koo, Ig Hwan Oh, Sohee Oh, Sun Min Kim, Sue Shin, Won Kim, Sae Kyung Joo, Errol R. Norwitz, Souphaphone Louangsenlath, Chan-Wook Park, Jong Kwan Jun, Joong Shin Park; Diabetes Metab J. 2020;44(5):726-736. Published online April 13, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2019.0126

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Background

The definition of the high-risk group for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) defined by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists was changed from the criteria composed of five historic/demographic factors (old criteria) to the criteria consisting of 11 factors (new criteria) in 2017. To compare the predictive performances between these two sets of criteria.

Methods

This is a secondary analysis of a large prospective cohort study of non-diabetic Korean women with singleton pregnancies designed to examine the risk of GDM in women with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Maternal fasting blood was taken at 10 to 14 weeks of gestation and measured for glucose and lipid parameters. GDM was diagnosed by the two-step approach.

Results

Among 820 women, 42 (5.1%) were diagnosed with GDM. Using the old criteria, 29.8% (n=244) of women would have been identified as high risk versus 16.0% (n=131) using the new criteria. Of the 42 women who developed GDM, 45.2% (n=19) would have been mislabeled as not high risk by the old criteria versus 50.0% (n=21) using the new criteria (1-sensitivity, 45.2% vs. 50.0%, P>0.05). Among the 778 patients who did not develop GDM, 28.4% (n=221) would have been identified as high risk using the old criteria versus 14.1% (n=110) using the new criteria (1-specificity, 28.4% vs. 14.1%, P<0.001).

Conclusion

Compared with the old criteria, use of the new criteria would have decreased the number of patients identified as high risk and thus requiring early GDM screening by half (from 244 [29.8%] to 131 [16.0%]).

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Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Glucose Effectiveness from Short Insulin-Modified IVGTT and Its Application to the Study of Women with Previous Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Micaela Morettini, Carlo Castriota, Christian Göbl, Alexandra Kautzky-Willer, Giovanni Pacini, Laura Burattini, Andrea Tura; Diabetes Metab J. 2020;44(2):286-294. Published online January 13, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2019.0016

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Background

This study aimed to design a simple surrogate marker (i.e., predictor) of the minimal model glucose effectiveness (S_G), namely calculated S_G (CS_G), from a short insulin-modified intravenous glucose tolerance test (IM-IVGTT), and then to apply it to study women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus (pGDM).

Methods

CS_G was designed using the stepwise model selection approach on a population of subjects (n=181) ranging from normal tolerance to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). CS_G was then tested on a population of women with pGDM (n=57). Each subject underwent a 3-hour IM-IVGTT; women with pGDM were observed early postpartum and after a follow-up period of up to 7 years and classified as progressors (PROG) or non-progressors (NONPROG) to T2DM. The minimal model analysis provided a reference S_G.

Results

CS_G was described as CS_G=1.06×10⁻²+5.71×10⁻²×K_G/G_peak, K_G being the mean slope (absolute value) of loge glucose in 10–25- and 25–50-minute intervals, and G_peak being the maximum of the glucose curve. Good agreement between CS_G and S_G in the general population and in the pGDM group, both at baseline and follow-up (even in PROG and NONPROG subgroups), was shown by the Bland-Altman plots (<5% observations outside limits of agreement), and by the test for equivalence (equivalence margin not higher than one standard deviation). At baseline, the PROG subgroup showed significantly lower S_G and CS_G values compared to the NONPROG subgroup (P<0.03).

Conclusion

CS_G is a valid S_G predictor. In the pGDM group, glucose effectiveness appeared to be impaired in women progressing to T2DM.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Postprandial Free Fatty Acids at Mid-Pregnancy Increase the Risk of Large-for-Gestational-Age Newborns in Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
So-Yeon Kim, Young Shin Song, Soo-Kyung Kim, Yong-Wook Cho, Kyung-Soo Kim
Diabetes & Metabolism Journal.2022; 46(1): 140. CrossRef
Unraveling the Factors Determining Development of Type 2 Diabetes in Women With a History of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Through Machine-Learning Techniques
Ludovica Ilari, Agnese Piersanti, Christian Göbl, Laura Burattini, Alexandra Kautzky-Willer, Andrea Tura, Micaela Morettini
Frontiers in Physiology.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
The Clinical Characteristics of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Korea: A National Health Information Database Study
Kyung-Soo Kim, Sangmo Hong, Kyungdo Han, Cheol-Young Park
Endocrinology and Metabolism.2021; 36(3): 628. CrossRef

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