Fig. 1The total energy intake for 120 minutes (A) and energy intake of each time interval during the study (B), changes of appetite (C), and changes of fullness (D) after each premeal supplementation. Data are mean±standard error of the mean. (A) P for analysis of variance (ANOVA) was 0.008, (B) P for ANOVA for 0 to 30 minutes and for 30 to 120 minutes were <0.001 and 0.032, respectively. (C) For appetite, P for time was <0.001, P for preload was 0.560, and P for time-by-preload interaction was 0.469. (D) For fullness, P for time was <0.001, P for preload was 0.880, and P for time-by-preload interaction was 0.011. UB, usual bar; PFB, protein-enriched dietary fiber-fortified bar; VAS, visual analog scale. aP<0.05 by post hoc analysis.
Fig. 2The changes of (A) plasma glucose, (C) insulin, (E) glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), (G) peptide YY (PYY), (I) active ghrelin levels, and (B, D, F, H, J) their incremental area under the curves (iAUCs), respectively, after each premeal supplementation. Data are mean±standard error of the mean. (A) For glucose, P for time was <0.001, P for preload was 0.102, and P for time-by-preload interaction was <0.001. (C) For insulin, P for time was <0.001, P for preload was 0.649, and P for time-by-preload interaction was <0.183. (E) For GLP-1, P for time was <0.001, P for preload was 0.096, and P for time-by-preload interaction was <0.001. (G) For PYY, P for time was <0.001, P for preload was 0.972, and P for time-by-preload interaction was <0.638. (I) For active ghrelin, P for time was 0.017, P for preload was 0.710, and P for time-by-preload interaction was 0.912. UB, usual bar; PFB, protein-enriched dietary fiber-fortified bar; AUC, area under the curve. aP<0.05 by post hoc analysis between PFB and water control, bP<0.05 by post hoc analysis both for PFB vs. UB and PFB vs. water control.
Fig. 3Correlation analyses of the difference in energy intake for the first 30 minutes and the difference in the (A) insulin at 0 minute, (B) insulin at 30 minutes, (C) glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) at 0 minute, (D) GLP-1 at 30 minutes. (E) peptide YY (PYY) at 0 minute, (F) PYY at 30 minutes, (G) active ghrelin at 0 minute, and (H) active ghrelin at 30 minutes between the protein-enriched dietary fiber-fortified bar (PFB) and water preloads. Linear regression analysis was done for each parameter. The difference in insulin at 0 minutes, PYY at 0 minutes, and PYY at 30 minutes were only significantly correlated with the difference in energy intake for the first 30 minutes between the PFB and water preloads.
Table 1Baseline characteristics of the subjects
Characteristic |
Value |
Age, yr |
31.4±8.6 |
Male sex |
14 (70) |
Height, cm |
168.9±8.8 |
Weight, kg |
67.4±12.2 |
BMI, kg/m2
|
23.6±3.9 |
Systolic BP, mm Hg |
117.7±12.2 |
Diastolic BP, mm Hg |
75.4±10.1 |
Fasting glucose, mmol/L |
4.92±0.55 |
HbA1c, % |
5.2±0.3 |
Total cholesterol, mmol/L |
4.84±0.95 |
Triglyceride, mmol/L |
0.94±0.46 |
HDL-C, mmol/L |
1.54±0.43 |
LDL-C, mmol/L |
2.99±1.04 |
AST, IU/L |
18.3±6.6 |
ALT, IU/L |
19.8±12.4 |
Creatinine, μmol/L |
79.6±17.7 |
Estimated GFR |
98.2±18.3 |
Table 2Comparison of energy intake
Energy intake |
Premeal type |
P value |
Water |
UB |
PFB |
ANOVA |
Water vs. UBa
|
Water vs. PFBa
|
UB vs. PFBa
|
Total energy intake 0–30 min, kcal |
713.5±219.1 |
738.5±294.3 |
666.5±327.5 |
0.161 |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Test meal intake 0–30 min, kcal |
713.5±219.1 |
665.5±294.3 |
593.5±327.5 |
<0.001 |
0.198 |
0.041 |
0.041 |
Total energy intake 0–120 min, kcal |
1,075.0±508.0 |
1,013.1±499.3 |
904.4±534.9 |
0.008 |
0.471 |
0.016 |
0.078 |
Test meal intake 0–120 min, kcal |
1,075.0±508.0 |
940.1±499.3 |
831.4±534.9 |
<0.001 |
0.044 |
0.001 |
0.078 |
Water intake |
526.0±190.2 |
541.5±273.5 |
544.0±237.9 |
0.922 |
NA |
NA |
NA |