INTRODUCTION

Diabetes is known to be directly and indirectly associated with stress [1,2]. Many researchers have reported that diabetes is actually induced by stress [3-7], and several hormones including cortisol are known to be involved [6]. Depression, eating disorders, and emotional stress make self-management more difficult, and adverse effects to glycemic control and complications can occur [8]. Severe stress can damage patient ability to benefit from basic health education about diabetes, and such education should therefore be postponed until self-management of stress is achieved [9]. Relief from stressors is thought to be absolutely necessary in order to improve the overall condition of diabetic patients. So, it is important to assess diabetes-related stresses as well as general stresses in diabetic patient. Many methods including the ATT39, the Questionnaire on Stress in Patients with Diabetes-Revised (QSD-R), Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID), and the Diabetes Distress Scale (DDS) have been reported for assessing the stress levels in diabetic patients [10-13]. Among these methods, the PAID questionnaire, which was introduced by Polonsky in 1995, has been most commonly cited in the medical journals and used in more than 10 countries. The internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha=0.90), reliability (r=0.83), and responsiveness of the PAID are high [12,13].

Methods for evaluating diabetes-related stress levels in Korean diabetic patients have not been developed. We translated the American version of the PAID stress evaluation into Korean, yielding the Korean PAID stress evaluation questionnaire, or PAID-K. To evaluate the effectiveness of the PAID-K questionnaire, we analyzed the characteristics and stress levels of a sample of Korean diabetic patients, and assessed the relationships between PAID-K scores and correlates of stress.

METHODS

Methods

The present study was conducted by Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism at Gachon University Gil Hospital, Yongnam University Hospital, and Inha University Hospital, Korea, between March of 2006 and February of 2008. We included type 2 diabetic patients between the ages of 40 and 74. Patients with severe heart disease, kidney disease (over 2.0 mg/dL creatinine), liver disease, and acute infection were excluded from this study. Data from 307 individuals were used for final analysis. Psychiatric care was recommended for patients whose stress levels were determined to be severe.

Experimental methods

Development of the PAID-K

The PAID evaluation form was translated into Korean by three Korean diabetes specialists consistent with the Korean cultural context. We conducted 20 preliminary studies and modified a total of 20 questions. A 5-point scale was developed for each item (0 to 4 points), and each score was multiplied by 1.25 to yield a total score of 100 [12]. Examinations of preliminary results could be completed within 10 minutes.

Survey reliability and validity

Cronbach's alpha was calculated to confirm the internal reliability of the PAID-K. To assist in accurate validation, the Hypoglycemia Fear Survey (HFS) and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-6 (STAI-6) were also translated and edited for comparison. The HFS consists of 26 questions and has a total possible score of 130 points, and the STAI-6 consists of 6 questions and has a total possible score of 24 points [14,15].

Subject evaluation

Data regarding family members, residence, income, education level, family history, and working conditions were compiled and evaluated for all participants, and exercise, alcohol, smoking, leisure activities, and dietary habits were also investigated. Height and weight measurements were taken while the patients wore light clothing and body weight (kg) was divided by height squared (m²) to calculate body mass index (BMI). Waist circumference was measured between the bottom rib and the iliac crest at the narrowest level near the navel after a relaxed exhale using a tape measure. Blood sampling was performed after 8 hours of fasting. Fasting blood glucose, 2 hour postprandial blood glucose, total cholesterol, and high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) were measured using a triglyceride automatic chemical analyzer (Hitachi 7600-110; Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan), and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) was calculated using the Friedewald formula (total cholesterol-[triglyceride/5]-[HDL-C]). The glycated hemoglobin test was performed using high performance liquid chromatography, and the spot urinary albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR) was measured by a one-time urine test. Cases for which ACR was between 30 and 300 µg/mg were defined as microalbuminuria and nephropathy was considered. The certainty of the length of diabetes treatment and insulin use in patients was assessed, and diabetic macrovascular complications and microvascular complications were diagnosed. Patients with macrovascular complications were defined as those having abnormalities in coronary angiography or single-photon emission computed tomography of the heart, those who had received coronary artery bypass grafts, and those with histories of acute cerebrovascular disease and peripheral vascular disease. Microvascular complications were identified as diabetic retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy, and diabetic neuropathy.

Statistical analyses

Statistical analyses of data were performed using SPSS version 15.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). All results were expressed as means±standard deviations. The independent sample t-test and Spearman correlation analysis were performed to assess the relationships between PAID-K and variables. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the averages of three groups, and the Bonferroni method was used for forensic analysis. Independent factors affecting PAID-K scores were analyzed by linear regression analysis. P values less than 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant.

RESULTS

General characteristics of the study subjects

There were a total of 307 subjects, 170 men (55.4%) and 137 women (44.6%). The mean age of the study subjects was 52.0±11.2. The mean duration of diabetes was 6.4±5.8 years, and 52 (16.9%) subjects were taking insulin. The mean BMI was 25.8±9.7 kg/m², mean waist circumference was 90.5±8.1 cm, mean glycated hemoglobin was 8.2±1.8%, mean fasting blood glucose was 154.0±54.0 mg/dL, and the mean 2 hour postprandial blood glucose was 233.7±88.9 mg/dL. The mean PAID-K score was 47.5±17.5, the mean HFS score was 39.7±13.9, and the mean STAI-6 score was 14.1±2.6 (Table 1).

Validation of PAID-K efficacy and correlations between PAID-K and characteristics

Cronbach's alpha for the translated PAID-K was 0.95. HFS was r=0.44 (P<0.05), and STAI-6 was r=0.21 (P<0.05). Here, we detected a significant correlation (Table 2). The PAID-K scores were significantly higher in patients with longer durations of diabetes and female patients (P=0.02, P=0.001, respectively), but there was no difference based on age. The PAID-K score in insulin group was significantly higher than in non-insulin group (51.6±15.7 vs. 46.6±17.9, P=0.038), and the PAID-K score in microalbuminuria group was also higher than in group without nephropathy, but this difference was not statistically significant (P=0.05) (Table 3). Glycated hemoglobin was directly related to the score (P for trend<0.05), but the group with very high glycated hemoglobin (over 11%) had lower PAID-K ratings (Fig. 1). PAID-K score was affected by gender (P=0.004) in a linear regression analysis, however, the score was unaffected by age, duration of diabetes, insulin usage, or the presence of diabetic nephropathy (Table 4).

DISCUSSION

We developed the PAID-K questionnaire, and used it to assess stress of Korean type 2 diabetic patients at three medical centers. Scores for the PAID-K, STAI-6, and HFS were associated in our sample, and the PAID-K was shown to be an effective method to evaluate stress in diabetics.

Ismail et al. [8] noted that work-related stress and loss of family-induced stress were factors leading to diabetes, and Thernlund et al. [3] reported that experiencing stress or trauma in the first two years of life can put children at risk for developing type 1 diabetes. Stress stimulates the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, and causes changes in the levels of several hormones, particularly increased serum cortisol concentrations and reduced sex hormone levels, which antagonize insulin action and elevate blood glucose levels [6]. Cortisol not only interferes with insulin action, but also plays a role in suppressing insulin secretion in pancreatic beta cells.

Diabetes itself is also a cause of stress. Compared to the general population, diabetes patients have higher levels of stress, and as stress levels increase, glycemic control deteriorates. Therefore, psychiatric supportive therapy is beneficial for controlling blood glucose levels [9,11].

The risk of depression is increased in diabetic patients [16]. However, early, appropriate diabetes treatment and stress management can help reduce suffering from diabetes and depression [17].

The methods that are used for evaluating and measuring stress are complex and diverse. Generally, the methods include measurements for stress-inducing factors, measurements of stress reactions, individual perception for stress reactions, and measurements of analysis and coping methods [18,19]. The evaluation of stress-inducing factors was previously performed using the Holmes and Rahe social readjustment rating scale [20], and events that cause continuous major changes in lifestyle, such as illness, divorce, or work were prioritized. In addition, there are other tests such as the daily life experience checklist, Hassle scale, inventory of small life events, daily stress scale, and daily stress inventory. In order to evaluate physiological responses related to stress, we evaluated autonomic nervous system response, stress hormone and endocrine response, neuropeptides, neurotransmitters and immune function. In order to assess cognitive-behavioral stress responses, we used the stress response perception scale. To assess individual coping methods and personality types for comparison to stress responses, the perceived stress factor scale, response strategy, coping method scale, and A type behavioral characteristic scale were used [18].

The PAID questionnaire used in this study was consulted as a simple method for measuring diabetes-related stress in American patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. The PAID questionnaire is clinically useful, and has been validated as an effective evaluation method, which is why has been translated into several languages and is widely used around the world [21]. The PAID questionnaire efficiently assesses diabetes-related factors affecting quality of life, and is advantageous due to its brevity compared with the ATT39 and QSD-R [13].

The 20 questions of the PAID questionnaire are divided into four categories: diabetes-related emotional problems (DP), treatment-related problems (TP), food-related problems (FP), and social support-related problems (SP). The PAID questionnaire was used in 2000 to evaluate Dutch and American diabetic patients. According to that comparative study, the mean scores of Dutch type 2 diabetic patients were DP 15.1±13.5, TP 2.3±3.0, FP 3.7±3.7, and SP 1.6±2.4, totaling 22.5±19.8, and in American type 2 diabetic patients, the mean scores were DP 17.9±15.6, TP 3.2±3.3, FP 4.8±3.9, and SP 1.8±2.4, totaling 27.8±23 [21]. The mean scores of the Korean participants of the present study were DP 31.8±11.6, TP 5.5±2.4, FP 6.4±2.7, and SP 3.7±2.1, totaling 47.5±17.5, and the category scores and total scores were higher than those of American and Dutch patients in the comparative study [21]. Generational differences, geographical differences, and healthcare environment differences are all thought to be factors explaining the discrepancies, however, even if these effects are considered, future research on why stress scores are so high in Korean diabetic patients is needed because the differences are so large. When the items of PAID questionnaire were examined, Dutch and American diabetic patients had the highest scores in response to the 'worrying about the future and the possibility of serious complications' question, and Korean patients had the highest scores in response to the 'feeling scared when you think about living with diabetes' question, with the second highest score was in response to the 'worrying about the future and the possibility of serious complications' question.

Snoek et al. [21] reported that PAID scores increase more as glycated hemoglobin increases and is higher in female patients than in male patients . Additionally, according to a study conducted by Polonsky et al. [22], PAID values appear higher as glycated hemoglobin increases and in diabetics with complications. In this study, the PAID-K scores of female patients were higher than those of male patients (P=0.001), and PAID-K scores were higher in patients with microalbuminuria but this difference was not statistically significant (P=0.05). In addition, as glycated hemoglobin increases, PAID-K scores show an increasing trend (P for trend<0.05), but in unusual cases in which glycated hemoglobin was extremely high (over 11%), the score was relatively low. It is thought that stresses about diabetes control and self-management may be lower in patients with high levels of glycated hemoglobin due to low personal interest in health.

Medication, diet control, and exercise are all essential to the treatment of diabetes, but it is also important to have mental and emotional support to continuously maintain these activities. Therefore, psychological and social factors must also be evaluated, and these evaluations can help the overall treatment of diabetic patients.

Many of the subjects of this study experienced diabetes-related stress. Patients stress management is equally as important as drug therapy, education and management of complications. Much of the stress can be ameliorated by support from physicians and caretakers, along with repeated education. Further studies are needed to investigate the degree to which stress can be improved by such support and education.

In practice, it is unreasonable to gauge the overall stress levels of diabetes patients through only a 20-item questionnaire. However, the PAID-K questionnaire is useful for evaluation of Korean diabetic patients in that diabetes-related stress levels can be indirectly identified for short periods of time using it. It is expected that implementing more detailed and ongoing psychological and social support would be helpful for overall diabetes management in patients with high PAID-K scores.

Acknowledgements

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This study was supported by a grant of the Korea Healthcare Technology Research and Development Project, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (A05-0463-B50704-05N1-00040B).

REFERENCES

• 1. Lloyd C, Smith J, Weinger K. Stress and diabetes: a review of the links. Diabetes Spectr 2005;18:121-127.ArticlePDF
• 2. Vialettes B, Ozanon JP, Kaplansky S, Farnarier C, Sauvaget E, Lassmann-Vague V, Bernard D, Vague P. Stress antecedents and immune status in recently diagnosed type I (insulindependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabete Metab 1989;15:45-50. PubMed
• 3. Thernlund GM, Dahlquist G, Hansson K, Ivarsson SA, Ludvigsson J, Sjoblad S, Hagglof B. Psychological stress and the onset of IDDM in children. Diabetes Care 1995;18:1323-1329. PubMed
• 4. Kawakami N, Araki S, Takatsuka N, Shimizu H, Ishibashi H. Overtime, psychosocial working conditions, and occurrence of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in Japanese men. J Epidemiol Community Health 1999;53:359-363. ArticlePubMedPMC
• 5. Mooy JM, de Vries H, Grootenhuis PA, Bouter LM, Heine RJ. Major stressful life events in relation to prevalence of undetected type 2 diabetes: the Hoorn Study. Diabetes Care 2000;23:197-201. ArticlePubMedPDF
• 6. Bjorntorp P. Body fat distribution, insulin resistance, and metabolic diseases. Nutrition 1997;13:795-803. ArticlePubMed
• 7. Bjorntorp P. Visceral fat accumulation: the missing link between psychosocial factors and cardiovascular disease? J Intern Med 1991;230:195-201. ArticlePubMed
• 8. Ismail K, Winkley K, Rabe-Hesketh S. Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials of psychological interventions to improve glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Lancet 2004;363:1589-1597. ArticlePubMed
• 9. The Education Committee of Korean Diabetes Association. Diabetes education program guidebook. 2006. 2nd ed. Seoul: Korean Diabetes Association; p. 358.
• 10. Dunn SM, Smartt HH, Beeney LJ, Turtle JR. Measurement of emotional adjustment in diabetic patients: validity and reliability of ATT39. Diabetes Care 1986;9:480-489. ArticlePubMedPDF
• 11. Herschbach P, Duran G, Waadt S, Zettler A, Amm C, Marten-Mittag B. Psychometric properties of the Questionnaire on Stress in Patients with Diabetes--Revised (QSD-R). Health Psychol 1997;16:171-174. ArticlePubMed
• 12. Welch G, Weinger K, Anderson B, Polonsky WH. Responsiveness of the Problem Areas In Diabetes (PAID) questionnaire. Diabet Med 2003;20:69-72. ArticlePubMed
• 13. Polonsky WH, Fisher L, Earles J, Dudl RJ, Lees J, Mullan J, Jackson RA. Assessing psychosocial distress in diabetes: development of the diabetes distress scale. Diabetes Care 2005;28:626-631. PubMed
• 14. Cox DJ, Irvine A, Gonder-Frederick L, Nowacek G, Butterfield J. Fear of hypoglycemia: quantification, validation, and utilization. Diabetes Care 1987;10:617-621. ArticlePubMedPDF
• 15. Marteau TM, Bekker H. The development of a six-item short-form of the state scale of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Br J Clin Psychol 1992;31(Pt 3):301-306. ArticlePubMedPDF
• 16. Nichols GA, Brown JB. Unadjusted and adjusted prevalence of diagnosed depression in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003;26:744-749. ArticlePubMedPDF
• 17. Goldney RD, Phillips PJ, Fisher LJ, Wilson DH. Diabetes, depression, and quality of life: a population study. Diabetes Care 2004;27:1066-1070. PubMed
• 18. Joe SH. Stress assessment and management. J Korean Med Assoc 2004;47:226-234.Article
• 19. Rosmond R. Role of stress in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005;30:1-10. ArticlePubMed
• 20. Holmes TH, Rahe RH. The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. J Psychosom Res 1967;11:213-218. ArticlePubMed
• 21. Snoek FJ, Pouwer F, Welch GW, Polonsky WH. Diabetes-related emotional distress in Dutch and U.S. diabetic patients: cross-cultural validity of the problem areas in diabetes scale. Diabetes Care 2000;23:1305-1309. ArticlePubMedPDF
• 22. Polonsky WH, Anderson BJ, Lohrer PA, Welch G, Jacobson AM, Aponte JE, Schwartz CE. Assessment of diabetes-related distress. Diabetes Care 1995;18:754-760. ArticlePubMedPDF

Fig. 1

Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID)-K score per category of HbA1c level. ^aP<0.05.

Table 1

Clinical characteristics of study subjects (n=307)

Values are presented as mean±standard deviation or number (%).

SD, standard deviation; BMI, body mass index; FBS, fasting blood sugar; PP2 BS, postprandial 2 hr blood sugar; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglyceride; HDL-C, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low density lipoprotein cholesterol; PAID, Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale; HFS, Hypoglycemia Fear Survey; STAI, State Trait Anxiety Inventory.

Table 2

Correlations between PAID-K scores and age, diabetes duration, HbA1c, STAI-6, and HFS

PAID, Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale; STAI, State Trait Anxiety Inventory; HFS, Hypoglycemia Fear Survey.

^aP<0.05, ^bP<0.01.

Table 3

Comparisons of PAID-K scores according to clinical characteristics in study subjects

PAID, Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale.

Table 4

Multiple linear regression analysis between PAID-K scores and dependent variables

PAID, Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale; SE, standard error.

Figure & Data

References

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  

• Impact of diabetes distress on glycemic control and diabetic complications in type 2 diabetes mellitus
  Hye-Sun Park, Yongin Cho, Da Hea Seo, Seong Hee Ahn, Seongbin Hong, Young Ju Suh, Suk Chon, Jeong-Taek Woo, Sei Hyun Baik, Kwan Woo Lee, So Hun Kim
  Scientific Reports.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Development and Validation of a Distress Measurement Related to Glucose Monitoring of Diabetes Patients
  Eujin Choi, Sooyeon Kim, Juhee Cho, Min-Sun Kim, Eun Kyung Kwon, Youngha Kim, Danbee Kang, Sung Yoon Cho
  Diabetes Therapy.2023; 14(4): 737.     CrossRef
• Development and validation of a distress measurement for insulin injections among patients with diabetes
  Eujin Choi, Min-Sun Kim, Juhee Cho, Sooyeon Kim, Eun Kyung Kwon, Youngha Kim, Danbee Kang, Sung Yoon Cho
  Scientific Reports.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
• The Mediating Effect of Experiential Avoidance on the Relationship between Diabetes Distress and Self-Stigma in People with Diabetes Mellitus Type 2 in Republic of Korea
  Kawoun Seo
  Healthcare.2023; 11(20): 2773.     CrossRef
• Patient-reported outcome measures for assessing health-related quality of life in people with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review
  Marlous Langendoen-Gort, Lenka Groeneveld, Cecilia A. C. Prinsen, Joline W. Beulens, Petra J. M. Elders, Ilana Halperin, Geetha Mukerji, Caroline B. Terwee, Femke Rutters
  Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders.2022; 23(5): 931.     CrossRef
• The Mediating Effect of Acceptance Action in the Relationship between Diabetes Distress and Self-stigma among Old Adults with Diabetes in South Korea
  Hyesun Kim, Kawoun Seo
  Journal of Korean Academy of Community Health Nursing.2022; 33(4): 446.     CrossRef
• Mobile Healthcare System Provided by Primary Care Physicians Improves Quality of Diabetes Care
  Tae Jung Oh, Jie-Eun Lee, Seok Kim, Sooyoung Yoo, Hak Chul Jang
  CardioMetabolic Syndrome Journal.2021; 1(1): 88.     CrossRef
• Measurement Properties of Patient-Reported Outcome Measures for Diabetes: Systematic Review
  Priscilla Jia Ling Wee, Yu Heng Kwan, Dionne Hui Fang Loh, Jie Kie Phang, Troy H Puar, Truls Østbye, Julian Thumboo, Sungwon Yoon, Lian Leng Low
  Journal of Medical Internet Research.2021; 23(8): e25002.     CrossRef
• Validity and Reliability of the Korean Version of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-Stigma (AAQ-S-K)
  Hyunjin Lee, Myoungjin Kwon, Kawoun Seo
  Healthcare.2021; 9(10): 1355.     CrossRef
• Adherence to Mediterranean diet and advanced glycation endproducts in patients with diabetes
  Marko Grahovac, Marko Kumric, Marino Vilovic, Dinko Martinovic, Ante Kreso, Tina Ticinovic Kurir, Josip Vrdoljak, Karlo Prizmic, Joško Božić
  World Journal of Diabetes.2021; 12(11): 1942.     CrossRef
• The Impact of a Community-Based Food Education Program on Nutrition-Related Knowledge in Middle-Aged and Older Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: Results of a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial
  Carlos Vasconcelos, António Almeida, Maria Cabral, Elisabete Ramos, Romeu Mendes
  International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2019; 16(13): 2403.     CrossRef
• The Effects of the 2030 Diabetes Camp Program on Depression, Anxiety, and Stress in Diabetic Patients
  Jin Hee Jung, Jung Hwa Lee
  The Journal of Korean Diabetes.2019; 20(3): 194.     CrossRef
• Research of Type 2 Diabetes Patients’ Problem Areas and Affecting Factors
  Sebahat Atalikoğlu Başkan, Mehtap Tan
  Journal of Diabetes Mellitus.2017; 07(03): 175.     CrossRef
• Diabetes-related emotional distress instruments: A systematic review of measurement properties
  Jiyeon Lee, Eun-Hyun Lee, Chun-Ja Kim, Seung Hei Moon
  International Journal of Nursing Studies.2015; 52(12): 1868.     CrossRef
• Internet-Based Mentoring Program for Patients with Type 1 Diabetes
  Sun-Hye Ko, Seung-Hyun Ko
  Diabetes & Metabolism Journal.2014; 38(2): 107.     CrossRef
• Influence of the Duration of Diabetes on the Outcome of a Diabetes Self-Management Education Program
  Seung-Hyun Ko, Sin-Ae Park, Jae-Hyoung Cho, Sun-Hye Ko, Kyung-Mi Shin, Seung-Hwan Lee, Ki-Ho Song, Yong-Moon Park, Yu-Bae Ahn
  Diabetes & Metabolism Journal.2012; 36(3): 222.     CrossRef

About this article

Eom YS, Park HS, Kim SH, Yang SM, Nam MS, Lee HW, Lee KY, Lee S, Kim YS, Park IB. Evaluation of Stress in Korean Patients with Diabetes Mellitus Using the Problem Areas in Diabetes-Korea Questionnaire. Diabetes Metab J. 2011;35(2):182-187.

Received: Sep 02, 2010; Accepted: Nov 10, 2010

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2011.35.2.182.

Download citation ↓