- Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
- Ultra-Processed Food Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies
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Yujin Kim, Yoonkyoung Cho, Jin Eui Kim, Dong Hoon Lee, Hannah Oh
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Received November 9, 2024 Accepted December 20, 2024 Published online June 9, 2025
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2024.0706
[Epub ahead of print]
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 Abstract
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- Background
Although some studies suggest a positive association between ultra-processed food (UPF) intake and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), little is known about the exact shape and risks associated with different units (percentage of g/day, absolute g/day, serving/day) of UPF intake and whether the association is independent of diet quality, total energy intake, and body mass index (BMI).
Methods
Prospective studies published through January 2024 were identified by searching PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. Summary relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using random-effects models. A nonlinear dose-response meta-analysis was conducted using restricted cubic spline analysis.
Results
After screening 569 publications, a total of 12 prospective cohort studies were included. Comparing the highest vs. lowest categories of intake, summary RR for T2DM risk was 1.48 (95% CI, 1.36 to 1.61). Higher summary RRs were observed among studies from Europe and North America. Among individual UPF subgroups, processed meats (summary RR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.16 to 1.54) were positively associated, whereas ultra-processed cereals and breads (0.98; 95% CI, 0.97 to 0.99) and packaged savory snacks (0.92; 95% CI, 0.88 to 0.95) were inversely associated. The summary RRs associated with every 10% (of g/day), 100-g/day, and 1-serving/day increase in UPF intake were 1.14 (95% CI, 1.11 to 1.17), 1.05 (95% CI, 1.03 to 1.06), and 1.04 (95% CI, 1.03 to 1.05), respectively. The dose-response curve for absolute g/d intake suggested nonlinearity, showing a steeper risk increase approximately at >300 g/day. The associations persisted after adjustment for diet quality, energy intake, or BMI.
Conclusion
Our data suggest that UPF intake increases diabetes risk, with a potential threshold effect at 300 g/day.
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