Fig. 1(A) Comparison of sodium intake in male with known diabetes mellitus (DM) and newly diagnosed DM. (B) Comparison of sodium intake in female with known DM and newly diagnosed DM. P value was obtained from PROC SURVEYREG after adjustment for (sex), age group, education, income, body mass index, smoking, alcohol use, physical activity, and total energy intake. aNormal vs. diabetes, bNormal vs. formerly diagnosed, cNormal vs. newly diagnosed, dFormerly vs. newly, e,fStatistically significant P value.
Table 1Baseline characteristics in DM and non-DM
Characteristic |
Normal, % (n=12,477) |
Diabetes, % (n=1,480) |
P valuea
|
Sex |
|
|
|
Male |
48.9 |
56.0 |
<0.001 |
Female |
51.1 |
44.0 |
|
Age group, yr |
|
|
|
30–44 |
44.5 |
13.1 |
<0.001 |
45–64 |
35.7 |
40.1 |
|
65–74 |
15.5 |
35.8 |
|
≥75 |
4.2 |
11.0 |
|
Education |
|
|
|
Elementary |
20.8 |
42.4 |
<0.001 |
Lower secondary |
12.4 |
15.0 |
|
Upper secondary |
36.1 |
27.8 |
|
College or more |
30.6 |
14.8 |
|
Income |
|
|
|
Lowest |
15.0 |
29.1 |
<0.001 |
Medium-low |
24.8 |
28.4 |
|
Medium-high |
30.1 |
22.3 |
|
Highest |
30.1 |
20.2 |
|
Body mass index, kg/m2
|
|
|
|
<18.5 |
3.4 |
1.7 |
<0.001 |
18.5–25.0 |
64.9 |
46.3 |
|
≥25.0 |
31.6 |
52.0 |
|
Current smokers, yes |
24.8 |
23.5 |
0.394 |
Alcohol use, yes |
57.8 |
48.0 |
<0.001 |
Regular physical activity, yes |
13.2 |
12.6 |
0.615 |
Prevalence of hypertension, yes |
29.0 |
59.4 |
<0.001 |
Prevalence of hypercholesterolemia, yes |
11.0 |
24.5 |
<0.001 |
Prevalence of hypertriglyceridemia, yes |
16.1 |
31.5 |
<0.001 |
Total energy intake, kcal |
1,970.2±10.1 |
1,847.6±25.9 |
<0.001b
|
%CHO |
68.4±0.1 |
71.3±0.3 |
<0.001b
|
%Fat |
17.0±0.1 |
14.6±0.3 |
<0.001b
|
%Protein |
14.7±0.1 |
14.1±0.1 |
0.001b
|
Table 2Comparison of sodium intake in people with diabetes mellitus and non-diabetes mellitus
Variable |
Normal |
Diabetes |
Diabetes formerly diagnosed |
Diabetes newly diagnosed |
P valuea
|
Total (n=13,957) |
12,477 |
1,480 |
1,137 |
343 |
|
Sodium, mg |
5,188.2±39.1 |
4,910.2±116.1 |
4,741.0±133.6 |
5,340.8±230.6 |
>0.1b,c,d,e
|
Male (n=5,661) |
4,930 |
731 |
543 |
188 |
|
Sodium, mg |
6,127.1±55.4 |
5,676.3±174.0 |
5,547.3±210.0 |
5,957.6±320.0 |
>0.1b,c,d,e
|
Female (n=8,296) |
7,547 |
749 |
594 |
155 |
|
Sodium, mg |
4,290.5±41.5 |
3,933.3±136.6 |
3,812.5±150.7 |
4,314.2±270.4 |
0.022d, 0.035e
|
Table 3Comparison of sodium intake in DM patients with or without CVD, hypercholesterolemia, hypertriglyceridemia
Variable |
Na, mg |
P value |
Total (n=1,480) |
|
|
DM alone |
4,929.4±126.8 |
a
|
DM c CVD |
4,727.1±350.5 |
0.786 |
DM alone |
4,711.2±132.6 |
b
|
DM c hypercholesterolemia |
5,525.2±250.9 |
0.021 |
DM alone |
4,726.8±134.7 |
b
|
DM c hypertriglyceridemia |
5,294.1±7,187.5 |
0.201 |
Male (n=731) |
|
|
DM alone |
5,669.4±185.1 |
a
|
DM c CVD |
5,738.6±499.4 |
0.439 |
DM alone |
5,294.1±182.0 |
b
|
DM c hypercholesterolemia |
7,187.5±432.3 |
0.011 |
DM alone |
5,507.1±217.9 |
b
|
DM c hypertriglyceridemia |
5,994.4±291.3 |
0.891 |
Female (n=749) |
|
|
DM alone |
3,998.2±148.4 |
a
|
DM c CVD |
3,262.2±246.9 |
0.058 |
DM alone |
3,865.1±162.5 |
b
|
DM c hypercholesterolemia |
4,093.4±230.5 |
0.777 |
DM alone |
3,833.4±127.4 |
b
|
DM c hypertriglyceridemia |
4,199.6±347.9 |
0.067 |
Table 4Odds ratio of dyslipidemia according to the quartile of sodium intake
Variable |
Q1 |
Q2 |
Q3 |
Q4 |
P value |
OR |
95% CI |
OR |
95% CI |
OR |
95% CI |
OR |
95% CI |
Total (n=1,480) |
370 |
370 |
370 |
370 |
|
Hypercholesterolemia (n=364) |
1.00 |
- |
1.16 |
0.74–1.80 |
0.99 |
0.62–1.56 |
1.83 |
1.12–2.97 |
0.028 |
Hypertriglyceridemia (n=432) |
1.00 |
- |
0.83 |
0.55–1.25 |
1.03 |
0.68–1.58 |
1.02 |
0.67–1.56 |
0.629 |
Male (n=731) |
182 |
183 |
183 |
183 |
|
Hypercholesterolemia (n=134) |
1.00 |
- |
1.02 |
0.47–2.20 |
1.29 |
0.60–2.77 |
2.46 |
1.20–5.05 |
0.006 |
Hypertriglyceridemia (n=229) |
1.00 |
- |
0.66 |
0.37–1.18 |
0.94 |
0.52–1.68 |
1.03 |
0.55–1.91 |
0.548 |
Female (n=749) |
187 |
187 |
188 |
187 |
|
Hypercholesterolemia (n=230) |
1.00 |
- |
0.77 |
0.44–1.34 |
1.27 |
0.68–2.39 |
1.20 |
0.64–2.22 |
0.301 |
Hypertriglyceridemia (n=203) |
1.00 |
- |
1.72 |
0.96–3.09 |
1.97 |
1.13–3.44 |
1.52 |
0.82–2.82 |
0.144 |