Table 1Prevalence of subjects with or without depression and varying degrees of glucose tolerance with associated risk factors
Characteristic |
Healthy (no depression or glucose abnormality) |
Subjects with depression only |
Subjects with pre-DM only |
Subjects with depression and pre-DM |
Subjects DM only |
Subjects with depression and DM |
Sex total (n=2,293) |
1,674 (73) |
241 (10.5) |
145 (6.3) |
52 (2.3) |
123 (5.4) |
58 (2.5) |
Male |
616 (26.9) |
62 (2.7) |
66 (2.9) |
19 (0.8) |
58 (2.5) |
21 (0.9) |
Female |
1,058 (46.1) |
179 (7.8) |
79 (3.4) |
33 (1.4) |
65 (2.8) |
37 (1.6) |
Age, yr |
40.89±13.71 |
43.40±14.31 |
42.54±12.54 |
48.83±14.54 |
45.66±13.66 |
45.57±13.48 |
Body mass index |
22.38±3.81 |
21.92±3.88 |
24.01±3.95 |
24.55±3.58 |
24.35±3.58 |
24.03±3.72 |
Waist to hip ratio |
0.87±0.06 |
0.86±0.06 |
0.90±0.06 |
0.88±0.07 |
0.92±0.05 |
0.92±0.06 |
SBP, mm Hg |
116.58±39.23 |
117.67±15.66 |
117.53±17.45 |
118.55±18.94 |
119.16±16.10 |
115.77±19.47 |
DBP, mm Hg |
76.57±10.08 |
77.71±10.00 |
78.74±11.49 |
78.41±9.88 |
78.71±10.46 |
75.34±11.73 |
Hypertension |
243 (10.6) |
36 (1.6) |
31 (1.3) |
12 (0.5) |
24 (1.0) |
10 (0.4) |
Addiction to cigarette |
269 (11.7) |
36 (1.6) |
21 (0.9) |
5 (0.2) |
25 (1.1) |
9 (0.4) |
Addiction to chewing tobacco |
432 (18.8) |
71 (3.1) |
32 (1.4) |
19 (0.8) |
35 (1.5) |
20 (0.9) |
Table 2Clinical and biochemical characteristics of the subjects with depression, glucose abnormality compared with healthy subjects
Characteristic |
No depression and glucose abnormality |
Depressed |
Pre-DM |
DM |
Total (n=2,293) |
1,674 (73) |
351 (15.3) |
197 (8.6) |
181 (7.9) |
Age (mean age of population 41.20±13.81) |
40.89±13.71 |
44.56±14.31 |
44.20±13.35 |
45.63±13.57 |
Male (n=842) (% among total population) |
616 (26.9) |
102 (4.4) |
85 (3.7) |
79 (3.4) |
Female (n=1,451) (% among total population) |
1,058 (46.1) |
249 (10.9) |
112 (4.9) |
102 (4.4) |
Education years |
4.67±4.55 |
3.34±4.17 |
4.64±4.73 |
4.80±4.68 |
Monthly expenditure, Takaa
|
7,752.19±5,515.94 |
7,978.63±6,905.50 |
8,213.20±6,155.32 |
8,933.70±6,222.80 |
Addiction to cigarette (% among total population) |
269 (11.73) |
50 (2.2) |
26 (1.1) |
34 (1.5) |
Addiction to tobacco (% among total population) |
432 (18.84) |
110 (4.8) |
51 (2.2) |
55 (2.4) |
Mean hours of physical activity |
4.34±2.38 |
4.30±2.46 |
3.99±2.41 |
4.08±2.47 |
Body mass index |
22.38±3.81 |
22.66±4.15 |
24.20±3.93 |
24.24±3.62 |
Waist to hip ratio |
0.87±0.06 |
0.87±0.07 |
0.90±0.06 |
0.92±0.05 |
Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg |
116.58±39.23 |
117.49±16.82 |
117.80±17.81 |
118.08±17.27 |
Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg |
76.57±10.08 |
77.42±10.30 |
78.65±11.06 |
77.63±10.96 |
Depression score (MADRS) |
3.66±3.30 |
17.62±3.49 |
7.58±7.31 |
8.72±7.80 |
Table 3Comparison between depressed and non-depressed group for different sociodemographic, clinical, and biochemical factors
Characteristic |
Subjects without depression |
Subjects with depression |
Sex total (n=2,293) |
1,942 (84.7) |
351 (15.3) |
Male (n=842) |
740 (32.3) |
102 (4.4) |
Female (n=1,451) |
1,202 (52.4) |
249 (10.8) |
Mean age |
41.43±13.68 |
44.45±14.26 |
Male |
44.00±14.41 |
44.25±14.59 |
Female |
39.67±12.94 |
40.39±13.15 |
Marital status |
|
|
Married (among married group) |
1,179 (79.2) |
309 (20.8) |
Unmarried (among unmarried group) |
78 (88.6) |
10 (11.4) |
Widow (among widow group) |
85 (72.6) |
32 (27.3) |
Education years |
4.75±4.6 |
3.34±4.17 |
Monthly expenditure (general), Takaa
|
7,852.55±5,621.89 |
7,978.63±6,905.50 |
Cigarette smoker (% among smokers group) (n=365) |
315 (86.3) |
50 (13.7) |
Tobacco consumers in other form (% among this group) (n=609) |
499 (81.9) |
110 (18.1) |
Physical activity (general) |
4.29±2.40 |
4.30±2.46 |
Body mass index |
22.63±3.86 |
22.66±4.15 |
Male |
22.47±3.63 |
22.48±3.71 |
Female |
22.73±3.98 |
22.72±4.01 |
Waist to hip ratio |
0.88±0.07 |
0.87±0.07 |
Male |
0.91±0.06 |
0.90±0.05 |
Female |
0.86±0.07 |
0.86±0.07 |
Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg |
115.75±16.26 |
117.49±16.82 |
Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg |
76.87±10.23 |
77.42±10.30 |
Hypertensive (% among hypertensive group) (n=195) |
155 (79.5) |
40 (20.5) |
IFG subjects (% among IFG group) (n=79) |
60 (75.9) |
19 (0.8) |
IGT subjects (% among IGT group) (n=118) |
85 (72.0) |
33 (1.4) |
Diabetic subjects (% among diabetic group) (n=181) |
123 (68.0) |
58 (2.5) |
Fasting glucose |
5.12±1.70 |
5.24±1.80 |
Table 4Prevalence of depressive symptoms by age and gender
Age, yr |
Non-depressive |
Depressive |
Prevalence (95% confidence interval) |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Total |
20-29 |
111 |
245 |
14 |
31 |
11.20 (5.84-5.21) |
11.23 (3.94-3.51) |
11.22 (3.27-2.91) |
30-39 |
201 |
408 |
27 |
66 |
11.84 (4.45-3.94) |
13.92 (3.34-2.90) |
13.25 (2.68-2.34) |
40-49 |
194 |
285 |
17 |
72 |
8.06 (3.82-3.52) |
20.17 (4.59-3.73) |
15.67 (3.23-2.75) |
50-59 |
119 |
153 |
21 |
42 |
15.00 (6.37-5.46) |
21.54 (6.40-5.14) |
18.81 (4.59-3.78) |
≥60 |
115 |
111 |
23 |
38 |
16.7 (6.75-5.69) |
25.50 (7.91-6.09) |
21.25 (5.25-4.22) |
Total |
740 |
1,202 |
102 |
249 |
12.11 (2.34-2.07) |
17.16 (2.11-1.77) |
15.31 (1.59-1.36) |
Table 5Risk of depression with or without pre-DM and DM
Variable |
Only depression |
Depression with pre-DM |
Depression with DM |
Odds ratio |
P value |
95% CI |
Odds ratio |
P value |
95% CI |
Odds ratio |
P value |
95% CI |
Age, yr |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
20-29a
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
30-39 |
1.09 |
0.697 |
0.70-1.68 |
1.12 |
0.658 |
0.67-1.85 |
1.87 |
0.057 |
0.98-3.57 |
40-49 |
1.31 |
0.240 |
0.83-2.05 |
1.18 |
0.535 |
0.69-2.01 |
2.94 |
0.001 |
1.54-5.62 |
50-59 |
1.73 |
0.024 |
1.07-2.87 |
1.58 |
0.107 |
0.90-2.77 |
2.82 |
0.003 |
1.41-5.63 |
≥60 |
1.58 |
0.104 |
0.90-2.76 |
1.77 |
0.060 |
0.97-3.24 |
3.42 |
0.001 |
1.65-7.10 |
Sex |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Malea
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Female |
1.62 |
0.003 |
1.17-2.23 |
0.73 |
0.076 |
0.54-1.03 |
0.80 |
0.197 |
0.57-1.11 |
Marital status |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Marrieda
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bachelor |
0.94 |
0.914 |
0.41-2.17 |
0.61 |
0.383 |
0.21-1.80 |
1.08 |
0.883 |
0.36-3.18 |
Single |
1.80 |
0.039 |
1.02-3.06 |
1.31 |
0.442 |
0.66-2.53 |
0.91 |
0.814 |
0.42-1.96 |
Body mass index |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
18.5-22.9a
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<18.5 |
1.23 |
0.287 |
0.83-1.82 |
0.98 |
0.972 |
0.57-1.70 |
0.53 |
0.101 |
0.25-1.12 |
≥23 |
1.09 |
0.500 |
1.54-0.80 |
1.78 |
0.001 |
1.25-2.52 |
1.47 |
0.029 |
1.04-2.09 |
Waist to hip ratio |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lowa
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
High |
0.82 |
0.215 |
0.60-1.12 |
1.55 |
0.015 |
1.08-2.22 |
2.83 |
0.000 |
1.89-4.35 |
Physical activity |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lowa
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
High |
1.20 |
0.276 |
0.86-1.69 |
0.96 |
0.963 |
0.68-1.35 |
0.88 |
0.506 |
0.62-1.26 |
Hypertension |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Normala
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Hypertensive |
1.07 |
0.720 |
0.72-1.57 |
1.46 |
0.045 |
1.00-2.11 |
1.162 |
0.471 |
0.77-1.75 |
Monthly income, Takab
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0-4,999a
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
5,000-9,999 |
0.62 |
0.005 |
0.86-0.44 |
1.09 |
0.656 |
1.62-0.73 |
1.28 |
0.271 |
1.99-0.82 |
10,000-14,999 |
0.68 |
0.091 |
1.06-0.44 |
1.15 |
0.573 |
1.87-0.70 |
1.56 |
0.090 |
2.64-0.93 |
15,000-19,999 |
0.67 |
0.307 |
1.43-0.32 |
1.95 |
0.040 |
3.70-1.20 |
2.71 |
0.003 |
5.22-1.40 |
≥20,000 |
1.01 |
0.975 |
1.90-0.53 |
1.14 |
0.716 |
2.40-0.54 |
1.93 |
0.064 |
3.90-0.96 |
Education, yr |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0a
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1-5 |
0.53 |
0.000 |
0.73-0.38 |
0.73 |
0.111 |
1.07-0.50 |
0.89 |
0.591 |
1.33-0.60 |
6-12 |
0.46 |
0.000 |
0.66-0.32 |
0.88 |
0.529 |
1.29-0.60 |
1.06 |
0.744 |
1.59-0.71 |
≥13 |
0.36 |
0.001 |
0.66-0.19 |
0.94 |
0.824 |
1.60-0.55 |
0.96 |
0.916 |
1.71-0.54 |
Table 6Comparison between pre-DM, DM, and 'without glucose abnormality group' for different sociodemographic, clinical, and biochemical factors
Characteristic |
Subjects without glucose abnormality |
Subjects with pre-DM |
Subjects with DM |
Sex total (n=2,293) |
1,915 (83.5) |
197 (8.6) |
182 (7.9) |
Male (n=842) |
678 (29.6) |
85 (1.3) |
79 (0.1) |
Female (n=451) |
1,237 (53.9) |
112 (2.4) |
102 (0.1) |
Age, yr |
41.20±13.81 |
44.20±13.35 |
45.63±13.57 |
Marital status |
|
|
|
Married |
1,740 (83.3) |
180 (8.6) |
168 (8.0) |
Unmarried |
80 (90.0) |
4 (4.5) |
4 (4.5) |
Widow |
95 (81.2) |
13 (11.1) |
9 (7.7) |
Education years |
4.50±4.53 |
4.64±4.73 |
4.80±4.68 |
Monthly expenditure (general), Takaa
|
7,736.38±5,754.60 |
8,213.20±6,155.32 |
8,933.70±6,222.81 |
Cigarette smoker (% among smokers group) (n=365) |
305 (83.6) |
26 (7.1) |
34 (9.3) |
Tobacco consumers in other form (% among this group) (n=609) |
1,412 (83.8) |
146 (8.7) |
126 (7.5) |
Physical activity (general) |
4.34±2.40 |
3.99±2.41 |
4.08±2.47 |
Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg |
115.63±16.09 |
117.80±17.81 |
118.08±17.27 |
Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg |
76.71±10.07 |
78.65±11.06 |
77.63±10.96 |
Hypertensive (% among hypertensive group) (n=195) |
139 (71.3) |
24 (12.3) |
32 (16.4) |
Body mass index |
22.32±3.82 |
24.16±4.21 |
24.24±3.62 |
Male |
22.16±3.65 |
24.02±4.20 |
23.61±3.05 |
Female |
22.42±3.92 |
24.26±4.23 |
24.73±3.95 |
Waist to hip ratio |
0.88±0.07 |
0.901±0.07 |
0.9261±0.05 |
Male |
0.90±0.06 |
0.92±0.06 |
0.94±0.05 |
Female |
0.85±0.07 |
0.88±0.07 |
0.91±0.06 |
Depressive score |
5.33±5.52 |
7.58±7.31 |
8.72±7.80 |
Table 7Risk of pre-diabetes mellitus and diabetes mellitus (compared to healthy subjects)
Variable |
Only pre-diabetes mellitus |
Only diabetes mellitus |
Odds ratio |
P value |
95% CI |
Odds ratio |
P value |
95% CI |
Age, yr |
|
|
|
|
|
|
20-29a
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
30-39 |
1.27 |
0.356 |
0.76-2.13 |
2.40 |
0.008 |
1.25-4.59 |
40-49 |
1.35 |
0.300 |
0.77-2.36 |
4.03 |
0.000 |
2.06-7.90 |
50-59 |
1.95 |
0.031 |
3.58-1.06 |
4.34 |
0.000 |
2.10-8.98 |
≥60 |
2.25 |
0.018 |
1.15-4.40 |
4.68 |
0.000 |
2.11-10.36 |
Sex |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Malea
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Female |
0.69 |
0.215 |
0.38-1.24 |
0.77 |
0.392 |
0.42-1.40 |
Marital status |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Marrieda
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bachelor |
0.48 |
0.173 |
0.16-1.38 |
0.70 |
0.517 |
0.24-2.04 |
Single |
1.14 |
0.693 |
0.59-2.22 |
0.82 |
0.606 |
0.38-0.76 |
Body mass index |
|
|
|
|
|
|
18.5-22.9a
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<18.5 |
1.07 |
0.815 |
0.62-1.82 |
0.61 |
0.186 |
0.29-1.27 |
≥23 |
1.68 |
0.003 |
1.19-2.37 |
1.34 |
0.096 |
0.95-1.89 |
Waist to hip ratio |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Low |
|
|
|
|
|
|
High |
0.60 |
0.005 |
0.43-0.86 |
0.32 |
0.000 |
0.21-0.48 |
Physical activity |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Low monthly income |
|
|
|
|
|
|
High |
0.83 |
0.256 |
0.60-1.14 |
0.80 |
0.189 |
0.57-1.11 |
Hypertension |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Normala
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Hypertensive |
1.45 |
0.119 |
0.91-2.32 |
2.19 |
0.000 |
1.42-3.37 |
Monthly income, Takab
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0-4,999a
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
5,000-9,999 |
1.10 |
0.639 |
0.74-1.64 |
1.24 |
0.335 |
0.80-1.95 |
10,000-14,999 |
1.11 |
0.674 |
0.68-1.83 |
1.43 |
0.184 |
0.84-2.43 |
15,000-19,999 |
1.77 |
0.090 |
0.91-3.40 |
2.30 |
0.016 |
1.17-4.51 |
≥20,000 |
1.05 |
0.890 |
0.50-2.24 |
1.60 |
0.198 |
0.78-3.30 |
Education, yr |
|
|
|
|
|
|
0 (never gone to school)a
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1-5 |
0.82 |
0.319 |
0.55-1.21 |
1.03 |
0.889 |
0.68-1.56 |
6-12 |
0.99 |
0.964 |
0.62-1.58 |
1.57 |
0.066 |
0.97-2.53 |
≥13 |
0.92 |
0.812 |
0.48-1.78 |
1.30 |
0.463 |
0.65-2.58 |